Of Mice and Men Relationships Free Essays

The tale ‘Of mice and Men’ is composed by John Steinbeck, set in the 1930’s, America, during the Great Depression. The subject of the novel is of two men (George and Lennie)â Steinbeck presents the two characters, George and Lennie, in the initial area of the novel. From this exchange â€Å"You drink a few, George†-the peruser can set up a comprehension of the two characters’ relationship. We will compose a custom article test on Of Mice and Men Relationships or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now One remained behind the other’, is the main sign that one take all the more a lead in the relationship than the other, and more proof to help this: ‘Lennie imitated him exactly’. Steinbeck proceeds to portray the primary man to be ‘small and quick’, while ‘behind him strolled his inverse, an enormous man’. It would be figured the bigger man would lead, to secure. The two men are depicted as ‘Both were wearing denim pants and in denim coats†¦ and both conveyed tight cover rolls’. This shows they are comparable in the manner they are both nomad laborers. Anyway they contrast with appearance: George is disclosed to have ‘sharp features’, and Lennie to be his inverse ‘shapeless of face’. Steinbeck utilizes their appearance to show how totally extraordinary they are with all the fixings, George has a sharp, fast psyche, while then again Lennie is somewhat dimwitted. Steinbeck presents George and Lennie’s relationship particularly like that of a dad and children. George takes care of Lennie’s work card as George knows Lennie all around ok not to confide in him with it: â€Å"think I’d let you convey your own work card? † George likewise pays special mind to Lennie and attempts to ensure him-‘you never oughta drink water when it ain’t running’, which is proof to show he resembles a dad, prompting Lennie. Steinbeck underscores the topic of George and Lennie resembling a dad and child further by George commending Lennie to fabricate Lennie’s confidence: â€Å"Good kid, that’s it†. Step by step instructions to refer to Of Mice and Men Relationships, Papers

The Case Of Harry Houndini Essay Sample free essay sample

A sort of unwritten or composed imparting. called clarifying. clarifies. portrays. gives data and even advises the perusers. The essayist of a descriptive origin could non accept that his perusers or listeners have previously mentioned informations or foremost entrance about the theme being examined. Other than. the essayist should ever use words that are simple intelligible by a typical peruser. Most essentially. the essayist must make sure that he gives waies to his perusers to association is extremely of import in this kind of initiation. ( â€Å"Information About Expository Writing† ) If the association of musings is frail to get down with. so it would already be able to be said that the nature of the full paper would be hapless as acceptable. Probably the best outline of an informative initiation is â€Å"The Case of Harry Houdini† composed by Daniel Mark Epstein. This is on the grounds that it contains all the highlights referenced previously. from association of musings down to the contemplations that the author is leaving to his perusers. We will compose a custom article test on The Case Of Harry Houndini Essay Sample or on the other hand any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page In particular. the author began his work by giving a review of what might be examined in the full paper. which in twist fills in as usher to the perusers. In this way. he sought after with the full work by talking them in thing. Other than. he did non do any premises that may hinder a standard peruser from understanding his work. Last. the author makes sure that he gives assistant inside informations about everything for it to be comprehendible. Toward the start of his origin. he demonstrated some data about Houdini’s life. especially being a rabbi’s kid. his introduction to the world in Hungary to his movements in the United States. up to his Tourss back in Europe. thus coming back to the U. S. After the said life. he so illuminates his perusers regarding what he does. which is to be a getaway imaginative individual. He other than explained the classs of activity that the ( German ) functionaries and Houdini himself do at whatever point he is attempting another flight demonstration. Last. the essayist expressed that towards the terminal of Houdini’s calling. he himself uncovered the privileged insights of his ain quick ones. Notices â€Å"Information About Expository Writing. †

Essay Topics and What They Carry

Essay Topics and What They CarryEssay topics are the central part of every essay, and it is important to know the things they carried in their briefcase or bag when writing. Essay topics should be studied closely to make sure they contain all of the elements that will be necessary to support your argument. In this article, we will discuss some key elements to look for in essay topics.Let's start with the essay topics you carry in your briefcase. Many students choose topics that relate to their field of study or that they have worked on recently. Others may choose topics that are related to a current event or to a place they are interested in going. The key is to choose topics that allow you to examine what makes you tick.As an example, consider a writer who has studied engineering. When he or she has a chance to travel in the field, the most common topic would be the company he or she works for. Topics about a company's culture or management style would not be very interesting. On th e other hand, a topic about the project he or she worked on recently would capture the excitement of his or her work experience.This doesn't mean that a student shouldn't carry other topics in the briefcase. In fact, they should. It just means that if a person isn't well acquainted with the things they carry in their briefcase, they could end up using things they carry, which might not be as interesting.How you carry your notes also has a big impact on how you write. Some students carry more notes than others. In fact, some students might even be prepared to pay someone to take their notes! Although this is true, students should always bear in mind that their notes are just a means to an end.Ultimately, your notes are a means to communicate important information and valuable ideas. They aren't meant to serve as a substitute for data. Some people may wish to reference their notes, but they should still focus on the goals of their essay.In addition to carrying essay topics, students s hould also consider what they bring to the table when they write. This might mean bringing extra copies of their thesis or a few work references. But many students fail to realize the importance of giving themselves a deadline. As an illustration, let's say that a person needs to turn in an essay by the end of February.A deadline for essay topics is important. The same goes for essay topics. By following a schedule and sticking to it, you can ensure that your essays are finished by a certain time. With this knowledge, it is easy to see why timing is so important in writing.

Mildred D. Taylors Portrayal of Being Black in...

Mildred D. Taylors Portrayal of Being Black in Mississippi in the 1930s Mildred D. Taylor is very successful in conveying the reality of what it was like to be black in the 1930’s in the Mississippi region of the Southern States of America. In reading this book we see racial issues through a child’s eyes, Cassie Logan a 9 year old, which gives rise to a spectrum of different emotions. The book is excellent and unusual because it looks at life at that time from a child’s perspective, and probably would not have been as successful if it had looked from an adult’s view. It clear from the book that Cassie’s voice is confident and assured but she is an innocent and honest girl, who is also strong and†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Hush, I said it was time to go to bed. Now go!† This is to protect the children from hearing the violence of the ‘night men’ and frightening them, because they do not understand the racial issues that are occurring around them. The author clearly shows family life for the Logan’s is sometimes very stressful, but nevertheless they consider themselves lucky for the little they have, such as their land. They are portrayed as a strong, but happy family. Mildred D.Taylor is again very successful in showing this by conveying to the reader, the happy and thankful times that the family has despite the adverse conditions that they have against them. For example, Mr Granger who is constantly trying to take their land from them. Education was important to the Logan’s, and Mildred Taylor emphasises this, because Mama repeatedly tells the children to get themselves a good education. â€Å"As long as you get yourselves a good education.† However, the schools that they attend are not good because of a number of reasons. For example, segregated schools: black people go to one school and white people go to another school. The schools attended by black children though, are not as good as those used by their white contemporaries. The black children do not have as good school facilities as the white children. They have

The Lovable Mrs. Bennet of Pride and Prejudice Essay

The Lovable Mrs. Bennet of Pride and Prejudice The general impression of Austens novels, which critic D. W. Harding says relieved him of any desire to read them, is that they offer readers a humorous refuge from an uncertain world. In his article Regulated Hatred: An Aspect in the Work of Jane Austen, Harding claims that this impression is misleading and that Jane Austen is actually very critical of her society, covertly expressing downright hatred for certain members of it by means of caricature. Mrs. Bennet, from Austens Pride and Prejudice, is one of these comic monster[s]. Harding claims that in order to view Mrs. Bennet as anything other than utterly detested by Austen one must ignore this Austens†¦show more content†¦Bennet for the failures of her marriage. But if we view the beginning of her marriage in Mrs. Bennets terms, Mr. Bennet turns out to be as disappointing a husband as she is a wife. Unlike her husband, Mrs. Bennet was not looking for strong understanding or a liberal mind in her partne r. She was looking for affection and financial security; she has been denied both. Mr. Bennet has chosen to withdraw his affection (Mrs. Bennet likely does not understand his reasons) and, the family lacking sons and his estate being entailed to the nearest male relative, he cannot promise his wife permanent security. Mrs. Bennet is not one to hold back her feelings. Mr. Bennet even makes sport of her ever-present nerves: They are my old friends. I have heard you mention them with consideration these twenty years at least (4). Yet, Mrs. Bennets society pressures women to be emotionally effusive. It is self-control that almost costs daughter Jane Bennet her marriage. While Jane remains unsure of her feelings for Bingley, she holds back-as yet, she cannot even be certain of the degree of her own regard, nor of its reasonableness (15). Elizabeth applauds this honesty, but her friend Charlotte warns her that Janes complacent behavior might cause her to lose Bingley: in nine cases out of ten, a woman ought to shew more affection than she feels (15). Darcy also assumes that women express their feelings fervently andShow MoreRelatedCharacter Analysis of Pride and Prejudice Essay763 Words   |  4 PagesPride and Prejudice The characters and general setting in Jane Austens; Pride and Prejudice, portray life in the rural society of the day. Austen is very clear in setting up the social classes of the characters and immediately portrays why the book is titled Pride and Prejudice. Though the more specific example of Pride and Prejudice is that of Elizabeth and Darcy, and how they first view each other. There initial feelings towards one another set the plot of the novel. It is this constant

Is Software Engineering A Multi Disciplinary Field

ABSTRACT Using qualitative methods and a qualitative analytical framework, it was found that communication and cooperation are the critical factors in developing large-scale software systems. Given the importance of this observation, it is perhaps surprising that research publications using qualitative methods are still scarce. Therefore, my goal in creating this paper is to make existing qualitative methods more visible and further the understanding of qualitative research and its importance in the software engineering community. This paper presents several qualitative methods for data collection and analysis and describes them in terms of how they might be incorporated into empirical studies of software engineering, in particular how†¦show more content†¦For various reasons, systematic empirical studies employing strictly scientific methods are hardly practiced in software engineering. Thus there is an unquestioned need for developing improved and better-qualified empirical methods , for their application in practice and for dissemination of the results. e.g., for planning, performing, analyzing, and reporting such studies. A range of research approaches can generate different and richer information about a complex phenomenon such as software development. In particular, qualitative research methods have been advocated in this regard, although they still occupy a relatively marginal position in software engineering research compared to quantitative methods. The reason that qualitative methods are used so infrequently in software engineering lies in its foundations as a scientific and engineering discipline. An inherited technical interest in improving practice is associated with a preference for quantitative research approaches that lend themselves to measuring causal relationships for successful software process improvement. However, studying software engineering is a complex undertaking not just because of its technical aspects, but also â€Å"from the awkward intersection of machine and human capabilities, and from the central role of human behavior in software development† (Seaman 1999, p.557).

Bruce Dawe Poetry Essay Example For Students

Bruce Dawe Poetry Essay Illustrate your answer in some way detail with reference to three poems. Bruce Dade, a well renowned Australian poet was born In 1930 In Gelling, Victoria. He was an altogether Indifferent pupil and left school at the age of sixteen working mostly as a laborer for the next ten years. However, he finished an adult matriculation course at night school and, in 1954, entered the university of Melbourne. He remained at Melbourne for only a year, but it was there that he met Philip Martin, whom Dade acknowledges as the greatest influence in his literacy encores, and who remained a friend, and an advisor in his developing poetic skills after he left his studies. After leaving university he was employed in Sydney as a factory hand, and in Melbourne as a postman. He then served in the RAFF from 1959-1968. He was a teacher at Downloads College from 1969 to 1 971, then at the university of Southern Queensland, retiring In 1993. He Is married with four children. All of the above experiences have brought Dade to write the poetry he has In Sometimes Gladness. Bruce Dade, who was once portrayed as an ordinary man tit a difference writes about ordinary Australian people In the suburbs confronting their everyday problems. He observes and records the sorrow and hardships of average people struggling back in the sass, right through until the sasss. We characterize Bruce Dade as an Australian Poet as he distinctively writes with Australian imagery, that suggests he is speaking of life and family experiences he has observed and felt over his career as an Australian poet. This is demonstrated in three Of his poems, A footnote to Kendall, Head for the hills and The Exiles. In Head or the Hills Bruce Dade uses a sense of insecurity to describe those who are living their lives as Australian outbacks. Although this poem also illustrates that fact that the easygoing people of these towns arent really worried by how much money theyre making or how big there house Is. As long as these people have enough money to attend their dally visit to the old country pub, they believe that their lives are almost close to brilliant. Throughout this poem Dade uses Australian emotion, such as the disturbing voices you believe the people may persuade themselves as. Dade uses slang so much to the point that he says such statements as whose shout as in who will pay for there next jug of beer and he also states bar flies, not even bothering to wipe the froth from their whiskers meaning that the old country folk gather around the bar like flies, and wont bother to wipe the froth from their whiskers, because in this day and age who cares when everyone else looks the same. Dade stresses the importance of head for the hills and head for the hills they did, men, women, and kids wheeling sore footed dogs In old prams Showing that no tater what our lives are about we have to make time and space for changes. I think this Is very Australian as we all sometimes become caught up In our own lives, not looking for the signposts or crossroads, because we become scared that they could possibly send us too dead end. Shadows of a dairy farm. Stranded, somehow helpless, working a seven day week, day in, day out, waking before the sun rises and lowering to the covers after dark. A footnote to Kendall expresses a great deal of Australians. Sit on a bloody log in a bit of a clearing thinks the young boy after missing his only pop of escaping, the bus to school. It wouldnt have been so bad, if theyd been some minimal excitement say, a passing goanna, or a potentially aggressive funnel web, or even something that looked like a snake. These words all seem so Australian; to have the art of writing about such events shows us that Bruce Dade is distinctively an Australian. The poem continues on to illustrate the family feuds that go on in the big rambling house and how their earnings never exceed fifteen bob a week which wasnt unusual in those days, the days were long and tough, those Australian mean ND women made our land and I think through the words and verses of this poem, Bruce Dade is saying Thank in a very broad way. .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 , .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 .postImageUrl , .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 , .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35:hover , .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35:visited , .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35:active { border:0!important; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35:active , .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35 .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uba863b631919949df48e4fdfb93e7d35:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Andrew Marvell: A Famous Metaphysical Poet EssayAfter reading the poem Exiles on many occasions I became more familiar with the purpose of why the poem has been written. This poem The Exiles describes with great detail yet so briefly the arriving of the English to take over the land of Australia. The poem tells of how those people who arrived at Botany, Morton or Port Phillip, to take control and almost steal the land from the Aboriginals. We took their hunting- grounds to graze cattle, we took their streams, we took at will, their women, we drove hem from the temples of the land. This verse shows exactly how horrid those people were, it is very Australian, due to the fact that it is about our land, and the people of our land. Dade continues on Or see them now, on the banks of the broad rivers explaining how difficult these Aboriginals lives actually are, yet most of us dont want anything to do with them, so, whose land is it, ours or theres? This seems to be the major question continuing on through Dates poetry, he shows distinct Australians, with his passion to write about something that is so important, but too secularly ignored in our societies. Dade has the capability of forcing the reader to believe they are in the situation he talks about. Through research I believe his aim is to challenge the reader to reassess their values and what they have in life after becoming aware of how little many others have. As can be seen in A footnote to Kendall, Head for the hills and The Exiles, Bruce Dade distinctively shows Australians through his imagery and illustrations, by completing poems about ordinary Australian people and the challenges and everyday problems that they face.

Instabilities in Arab States and Its Effect on the United States

the forest people essays

the forest people essays In his book, The Forest People, Colin Turnbull achieves the taste and feel of life inside a Mbuti community, but in doing so offers a skewed anthropological look at the peoples of the African Congo. When reading the book, I did truly feel a part of the Mbuti world, but I also noticed a lack of anthropological accuracy when it came to portraying effect had on Pygmies by the lives and cultures of surrounding natives. Not only does Turnbull lack respect non-Pygmy culture, but he also doesn't much account for the possibility of change as he idealizes the Mbuti belief and living system in the state it currently exists. As illustrated quite early in the book when Cephu's daughter dies of dysentery, the Mbuti people copy some of the patterns of ritual grief used by their villager Negro neighbors. It is clear from their behavior that the Pygmies hold little stock in the cultural beliefs of the villagers, and play along simply to not upset the good food source they can use the Negroes as. How ever, the way that Turnbull portrays this relationship is extremely one-sided, often times not even giving the "Negroes" the dignity of a tribal name. His treatment of their beliefs is similar, and gives only the vaguest reasons for their behavior, citing belief in spirits and fear of the forest. Since Negro customs obviously affect pygmy behavior, it seems curious that Turnbull should come so close to completely ignoring cultural reasons driving it. Forces moving culture are much clearer and completely defined when Turnbull follows the pygmies into the forest and away from the influence of surrounding villages. Here, the ritual of the molimo is seen in its pure state, as are other rituals such as marriage and the elima. From the Mbuti (and therefore Turnbull's) point of view, it is there in the middle of the forest that everything is right with the world, and no polluting influence of the villagers or of change can approach them. However, this is a f...

Selfies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Selfies - Research Paper Example Selfies are described as being photographs that are taken by individuals of their own persons with the typical aid of webcams or smartphones and then subsequently uploaded to the various social media websites. The increasing popularity of selfies and photography is highlighted by the fact that according to phys.org (2013), the internet search provider Yahoo recently estimated that in 2014, an estimated over 880 billion photographs will be taken. According to this estimate, there will be about 123 photos taken throughout the year for every child, man and woman on earth with the larger part of these photographs being selfies. A survey conducted in Britain for Samsung found that 10 percent of women and 17 percent of men were recorded as stating that they greatly enjoyed what they believed to be good-looking photographs of themselves. Part of the allure of selfies is based on the fact that taking a selfie is considered to be a ridiculously easy affair. This is in contrast to the photo taking affairs of yesteryears where taking photos was considered to be a serious and careful affair. During this era of film cameras, it was not worth it to waste an expensive roll of film on attempting to take self-portraits that had a high likelihood of not being well focused (Adewunmi 2013). The raging popularity of selfies on social media led to the development of Instagram in October 2010. Instagram is a social media website that is dedicated to facilitating the sharing of both pictures and videos. Instagram users are able to take pictures which they then easily upload and share with their friends on the site. Hoping to ride on the ever rising popularity of the selfies phenomenon, the social media site Facebook bought Instagram for approximately $1 billion in combined stock and cash, this is after Instagram had only been operational for only about three years. The increasing number of users

Regulation of Internet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Regulation of Internet - Essay Example What is imperative here is an understanding that applies in unison for the Internet being a source of inspiration as well as dismay at the same time for a number of people all over the world. Why the Internet is being seen as a deterrent towards inculcating a prosperous society is largely dependent on the people who have used it for their ulterior motives. Then the only discussion to make headlines surrounds the basis of regulating the Internet so that it could be used properly. The kind of audience that visits the Internet daily is somewhat of a confusing scenario as older adults and teenagers hook on to the Internet to seek their own needs and wants. Now how Internet shapes up for them is somewhat of a diabolical question – which leaves many people surprised and confused at the same time. Regulating the usage of the Internet seems to be the best foot forward but then again who is going to decide what should be regulated and in what capacity? There are many questions that req uire adequately sound answers so that the topic of Internet regulation can be materialized further. The manner in which Internet needs to be regulated is a classic case in point. This is because there are certain nuances related with the Internet that deem more regulation than others. This means that the content aspect is one of the more serious pointers which need our attention. Some content on the Internet is illegal to be hosted on certain websites without proper litigation measures taken. Then again, copying data is an infringement which needs to be sorted out (Schwartz 357). There are people out there who would go to any limit to make sure that Internet is used for negative purposes. This does not come out as a major sign of optimism for anyone and the people at large suffer. Also the ones who are doing something worthwhile on the Internet are made to suffer since some websites get regulated and hence they have to face the brunt of it in the long run. Looking at the opposing vi ewpoint is also significant. This is because some of the Internet users are of the view that regulating Internet would mean that the speed will become slow and the servers will have a hard time coping up with similar issues. Therefore it would be in the best interest of the Internet users if they keep doing what they are undertaking without any rules and restrictions whatsoever. It will resolve quite a few issues that engulf the Internet users and amicably resolve many more that are about to crop up in the future. The need is to understand that Internet is an open domain and should be seen as such. These people opine that Internet must not be regulated under any scenario whatsoever since they do not want to miss out on what Internet offers them in entirety. Their viewpoints are generally not appreciated by the ones who believe in having regulations on the Internet. In the end, it would be sound to suggest that the regulation of Internet can be a good omen for keeping away the undesi red stuff on the Internet but there needs to be a proper mechanism for deploying such a nuance. What is even more imperative here is the fact that regulation of Internet must not hurt the people at large. The speed of the Internet should remain as such and if there are any compromising features, these must be taken care of in a quantifiable way. When this happens, people achieve the

Cleft Palate Microflora- Normal and Pathogenic

Cleft Palate Microflora- Normal and Pathogenic A REVIEW OF LITERATURE Abstract Oral cavity is a house for more than 300 species of microorganisms which includes aerobic, non aerobic, spores, fungi etc. Though many microorganisms are commensal only few microorganism involve in pathogenic process due to predisposing or initiative factors like poor oral hygiene, medically compromised patients, dentate and non dentate mouth, dietary habit, clefts, etc,. Cleft palate is one of the conditions in which commensal microorganisms can become pathogenic over time. There will be communication between nasal and oral microorganisms, which makes the habitat more suitable for few like Staphylococcus species. Even after the closure of due to exchange of microflora between oral and nasal cavity it can lead to wound dehiscence, which further leads to post operative complications. Key words: cleft palate, oral microflora, wound dehiscence, staphylococcus, streptococcus, commensal, fistula Introduction Clefts of the palate comprise a range of disorders affecting the oral cavity, the causes of which remain largely unknown1. Affected children have a range of functional problems which include feeding difficulties at birth due to problems with oral seal, swallowing and nasal regurgitation, hearing difficulties due to abnormality in the palatal musculature and speech difficulties due to nasal escape and articulation problems (Mossey and Little, 2009)2. Cleft may also predispose to alteration of normal flora at nose and oral cavity. Viridans streptococci were the first persistent colonizer of the human mouth and Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and Neisseria spp were consistently found toward the end of the first year of life (Arief et al, 2005)3. NORMAL ORAL MICROFLORA The world we live in contains unimaginable numbers of bacteria, representing the major diversity of life on our planet. The commensal bacteria are present on the epithelial surfaces of the skin and on the mucosal surfaces of the oral cavity, respiratory tract, esophagus, gastrointestinal tract and urogenital tract. An estimated 300 to 500 bacterial species (sp) coexist within the oral cavity, of which approximately 50% are currently uncultivable.4 In spite of this, only a relatively small number of bacteria cause infection in man (Henderson and Wilson, 1998)5. Establishment of a normal flora occurs in a sequential manner: (1) the first exposure of the mucosal surfaces of a sterile neonate is to the maternal genital microflora during its passage through the birth canal, (2) a few hours later the organisms from the mothers (or the nurses) mouth and possibly a few from the environment are established in the mouth, usually Streptococci spp, which bind to mucosal epithelium, (3) oral flora on the childs first birthday usually consists of Streptococci, Staphylococci, Neisseriae and Lactobacilli, (4) the next evolutionary change in this community occurs during and after tooth eruption when two further niches are provided for bacterial colonization, (5) when all the teeth are lost as a result of senility, bacteria that colonize the mouth at this stage are very similar to those in a child before tooth eruption6,7,8. The oral cavity, upper respiratory tract, and certain regions of the ears and eyes have an indigenous microflora. Because of the close anatomic relationship of these structures, the resident flora of these regions shares many common pathogens. Within a given microenvironment, however, certain microbes that constitute the normal flora are associated with distinct anatomic sites. Thus, the normal flora exists within complex ecosystems at different sites and interacts closely with different bacterial spp and with the host epithelial layers. This indigenous microflora is known to change over time and host age, congenital malformation, underlying disease and chemotherapeutic agents affect its composition4. Microbial counts have been reported to vary from day to day9. A variety of conditions affect successful colonization of the mucosal surface in the oral cavity, including factors such as epithelial cell turnover, salivary flow, reduction in the oral pH environment following food intake and dentition. The predominant components of oral flora are Streptococcal spp, most commonly members of the Streptococcus group4,7,8. Increasing the amount of sugar intake would encourage growth of certain Streptococci that are able to tolerate a lower pH environment and also presence of teeth (Arief et al, 2005)3. Organisms generally considered as commensals including palate are coagulase-negative staphylococci, nonhemolytic and viridans streptococci, Corynebacterium spp, Neisseria spp Candida spp and other cultivable and not-yet-cultivable spp of Streptococcus.10,11,12 Candida albicans (C. albicans) is the most prevalent yeast isolated from the human body as a commensal or as an opportunistic pathogen13. The presence of C.albicans in the oral cavity is not indicative of disease. In many individuals, C.albicans is a minor component of their oral flora, and they have no clinical symptoms. In healthy individuals, a large number of sites in the oral cavity can be colonized by C.albicans14. A number of bacteria which populate the normal oral microflora are opportunistic pathogens capable of injuring or even killing the carrier, if conditions permit- organisms like Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus), ÃŽ ²-hemolytic streptococci, Neisseria meningitides, Streptococcus pneumoniae,5 Klebsiella spp, Escherichia coli (E.coli) and Pseudomonas spp (Roscoe and Hoang, 2007)10. (Table 1) MICROFLORA INVOLVED IN WOUND DEHISCENCE Any wound is at some risk of becoming infected. One school of thought is that the density of microorganisms is the critical factor in determining whether a wound is likely to heal. However, a second school of thought argues that the presence of specific pathogens is of primary importance in delayed healing, while yet others have reported microorganisms to be of minimal importance in delayed healing15. Wound contaminants are likely to originate from three main sources: (i) the environment; (ii) the surrounding skin; (iii) endogenous sources involving mucous membranes. The normal microfloras of the oral cavity are both diverse and abundant, and these supply the vast majority of microorganisms that colonize wounds15. Bacterial infections after cleft palate surgery increase the risk of wound breakdown, palatal fistulas, poor speech, poor growth, poor aesthetic results and death. As the commensal oral bacteria in a normal young child change from birth as the child grows, factors that affect oral bacterial colonization include presence of antibodies that inhibit bacterial adherence, presence of teeth, formation of a biofilm, bacterial load in the saliva of attendants and frequency of exposure, prolonged hospital care and exposure to antibiotics (Chuo and Timmons 2005).3,16,17 The risk of infection is generally based on the susceptibility of a surgical wound to microbial contamination. Clean surgery carries 1 to 5% risk of postoperative wound infection and in dirty procedures that are significantly more susceptible to endogenous contamination, a 27% risk of infection has been estimated15. Though, infection is not a very frequent complication following correction of the palate, when infection occurs, partial or complete dehiscence may be the consequence. All wound infections were diagnosed on the second to sixth postoperative day while most patients leave the hospital on the third postoperative day. However, the strong relationship with preoperative cultures and dehiscence indicates that pathogens causing infection do play a role. Moreover, patients with dehiscence showed pus and fever, both signs of an infectious complication18. One might also argue that wound tension contributes to dehiscence and other causative factor. For example, too close to the incision edges may prevent the tissue from meeting and binding together properly. Sutures that are too tight can result in strangulation of the wound edges and poor blood supply to the wound, causing necrosis or sutures are removed too early.18 Wounds undergo a predictable alteration in microbial flora over time. Early on, the wound is colonized particularly by ÃŽ ²-hemolytic Streptococci and S.aureus, within the first 1 to 4 weeks, these are soon accompanied by that often infect wounds together in a synergistic fashion. After approximately 4 weeks, chronic wounds are more likely to become colonized by Pseudomonas spp Infections in older wounds are polymicrobial mixtures of aerobic pathogens usually associated with tissue necrosis, undermining and deep structure involvement (Gordon Dow, 2009).19 Invasive group A Streptococcal infections, once thought to be mainly a problem of the preantibiotic era, continue to be reported in many countries. In a multicenter general practice study in Denmark (1983 and 1984), group A ÃŽ ²-hemolytic streptococci detected in the throats of 10.9% of 99 asymptomatic children younger than 15 years old. Also the throat carrier rates of groups A, C and G ÃŽ ²-hemolytic streptococci decreased with increasing age of the individuals’ studied.16 The carrier ship of group A Streptococcus may predispose to infection and S.aureus ranks second among spp cultured from infected wounds18. Whilst the importance of Staphylococci as medical pathogens has been recognised for many years, it is now suggest that Staphylococci can be isolated frequently from the oral cavity of particular patients group such as children, elderly and in ill patients. Therefore, it is apparent that the oral cavity may present a hitherto poorly recognised reservoir of Staphylococci, some of which may, under appropriate conditions cause local or systemic infection.17 Nasal bacteria may be transmitted through an oronasal cleftfistula to the oral cavity, and it may be able to survive in the oral environment in children with cleft lip and palate (CLP) (Mims et al., 1993). S.aureus were identified in 53.1% of saliva samples and 40.6% of nasal samples. The oronasal fistula area was significantly higher in children who had S.aureus colonization in their oral cavity (Tuna et al, 2008).20 Recent data have shown that S.aureus is more frequently found in the oral flora of cleft patients than in normal children. Using saliva swabs, Arief et al. found that children with cleft palate showed more colonization by S.aureus compared to normal children of 3–39 months, which decreased significantly after operation.3 According to Aziz, Rhee, and Redai (2009), 5.5% of patients had nonlife-threatening complications (infection or wound dehiscence)21 and according to Hupkens and group (2007), they encountered 6.0% of wound dehiscence.18 The microbiological studies comparing flora between cleft and non-cleft sites in children with CLP by Brennan et al. (2001) determined that the oral bacteria colonize the cleft nasal floor in patients with unilateral oronasal fistulas. They reported that oral bacteria were not cultured in the nasal floor of the cleft in the majority of patients with oronasal fistula. The Investigators claimed that oral bacteria might occur only when the fistulae are sufficiently large to maintain a similar environment to the oral cavity.20 The study by Tuna et al. showed bacterial transmission was proven for large oronasal fistulas and a correlation was found with S.aureus counts in the children with CLP. It appears that as fistula size increases, significantly higher colony numbers of S.aureus were found in saliva samples. In addition, S.aureus tends to survive in the oral cavity as a result of transmission through the nasal passages as long as an unrepaired cleft exists.20 One study by Myburgh, and K.W. Butow (2009), swabs taken from their soft palates were made for days 0, 2, 4 and 6. The pathogenic organisms were: C.albicans, E.coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, S. aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and others.22 Another study from Finland showed that, Viridans Streptococci were the first persistent oral bacteria in babies (Kononen, 2000). Staphylococci were prevalent in more than 25% of children aged 0 to 6 months. The prevalence of Staphylococcus was lower in older children.16 Klebsiella spp are ubiquitous in nature and probably have two common habitats, one being the environment and the other being the mucosal surfaces of humans which they colonize. In humans, Klebsiella pneumoniae is present as a saprophyte in the nasopharynx and in the intestinal tract. Klebsiellae are opportunistic pathogens, can give rise to severe diseases such as septicemia, pneumonia, UTI, soft tissue infection and nosocomial outbreaks. The detection rate in the nasopharynx range from 1 to 6%, which differ considerably from study to study; Klebsiella spp are rarely found there and are regarded simply as transient members of the flora.23 According to the statistics of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Klebsiella spp account for 8% of endemic hospital infections and 3% of epidemic outbreaks. The mortality due to Klebsiella spp bacteremia approaches 27–34% in adult patients. This data also showed a marked overall increase in the incidence of this infection during the study period and are in agreement with previous reports regarding the dynamics of gram-negative and Enterobacteriaceae bacteremias.24 During the 1980s and 1990s, the frequency of nosocomial Candidiasis has increased dramatically. Data from the USA National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System shows that C.albicans was the most frequently isolated fungal pathogen (59.7%) in hospital environments. Transfer of Candida between individuals often occurs via the hands of health care workers, and nosocomial transmission can occur without Candidiasis outbreaks.14 Approximately 60% of the isolated recovered were gram-positive cocci (coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, ~31%), S.aureus (20%), and Enterococcus (9.5%). Over the past 5–10 years, most commonly isolated were gram-negative rods, such as E.coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, P.aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp.23,25 It could be hypothesized that patient characteristics are primarily responsible for these differences. For example, genetic predilections, underlying diseases, social factors and economic factors and also differences in the virulence of individual microorganisms may be responsible for the manifestations of infection observed in cleft palate patients after surgery.26 (Table 2) Conclusion S.aureus and ÃŽ ²-hemolytic Streptococci are the commonest microflora which are responsible for wound dehiscence, it is always advised to do preoperative and postoperative culture. Though wound dehiscence is not always but frequent complication patient should be under proper care especially children. Alongside attention should be give to the other commensal microflora like Klebsiella, Candida, etc., which can become pathogenic over time in cleft patients. Despite advances in preoperative care, the rate of surgical wound dehiscence has not decreased in recent years. Recognition of risk factors, prevention of wound infection and mechanical stress on the incision are important. Management of dehisced wounds may include immediate surgery. If surgery is not needed, management is essentially the same as that of any other wound through maintenance of a moist wound environment, reduction of bio burden and pain, and promotion of granulation tissue.

Overcoming the Odds in Eudora Weltys A Worn Path Essays -- Worn Path

In the short story, "A Worn Path" Eudora Welty's plot is not all that clear in the beginning, but progresses as her character carries on against the overwhelming forces against her. In this short story a black elderly woman, Phoenix Jackson, must overcome the odds against her as she valiantly travels through many obstacles in order to contribute to the wellness of her grandson, for whom she is making this trip down "a worn path." It is at this point that all of Welty's readers' hearts open up to this poor, elderly woman as she makes an attempt to carry on her love for her grandson by taking a long journey down a familiar path in order to get medication that seems to help ease his sickness pains. However, there are many forces against Phoenix that Welty includes in her story in order to make Phoenix's adventure end in a victory. Poverty, old age, and her journey through the woods are all of the odds which Phoenix must overcome. Poverty is a major hardship that most of us will never have to face, but in Phoenix's case, poverty is present everyday in her and her grandson's life. Since she is In this state of poverty, Phoenix is not able to enjoy life's luxuries as others do and Must make do with what she can. As she begins her journey, it becomes clear that she lacks the money to pay for transportation to and from town; therefore, she starts down her path carrying a "thin, small cane made from an umbrella" (132). Although Welty never really emphasizes what this is used for the reader can assume that she uses it because she does not have the money to buy the actual cane needed to help her walk properly. Another conflict dealing with poverty arouses when she feels it necessary to steal from a hunter she encounters in... ...cidents indicate that Phoenix adapts to the dangers that face her, and allows the plot to then become clear. Welty catches the reader's attention by how real her short story seems. Even though many people may never experience Phoenix's problems, the descriptions and images she uses allows her to create a powerful story in which many feel they can relate to in some way. Her three major problems, poverty, old age, and some form of a journey, are all obstacles which all of her readers will one day face as they travel through their own paths. Works Cited Jacobs, Henry E. and Roberts, Edgar V. Literature: An Introduction to Reading and Writing. 5th ed. new Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998: 131-137. Oates, Joyce C. "Eudora Welty." Contemporary Literary Criticism. 1973 ed. 361. Vande Kieft, Ruth M. Eudora Welty. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1987.

Langston Hughes’ “As I Grew Older”

In â€Å"As I Grew Older,† Langston Hughes describes the battle and perseverance for African-American’s freedom though numerous metaphors. In the title and first stanza, Hughes compares his dream to a child growing older. A child is born into the bright sun with the mindset with anything is possible. But as the child grows older, they face obstacles. Hughes also refers to his goals as â€Å"my dream,† which was different from the White-American's dream, expressing how personal this dream is. In the second stanza Hughes introduces the wall, his obstacles and racial separation itself. He uses commas to further elongate the seemingly never-ending process of the wall growing. With each line, Hughes is pressed to the side of the page, as if this wall is physically straining him from writing. The wall seems to grow and grow forever, until it finally touches the sky. With the wall blocking the bright light, Hughes’ dream is in the dark. Replaced by a shadow, Hughes declares: I am black. This simple statement not only refers to Hughes’ situation in the poems context but also his being African-American. A shadow of racism soon covers the country. Through the first four stanzas the attitude of the speaker is sad and hurt. The tone of the poem suddenly changes from being passive to active. Hughes urges his â€Å"dark hands,† his culture and people, to â€Å"break thorough the wall! † and help him â€Å"break this shadow / into a thousand lights of sun! † The â€Å"dark hands† can also be a reference to slavery. Hughes believes that although there have been dark times, they can break down the wall of segregation to let in the lights of equality. Hughes' use of the sun as the goal expresses how far away the dream is yet how great an accomplishment this would be. This poem is a direct metaphor for Hughes' life and struggle with racism directed towards African-Americans. His own childhood scarred, Hughes hopes to break down this wall of the dominating White America. With the support of the African-American community, Hughes believes that they can overcome racism and segregation for equal rights. Hughes, Langston. â€Å"As I Grew Older. â€Å"

Essay on Catholic Teaching on Wealth and Poverty - 1019 Words

Catholic Teaching on Wealth and Poverty A catholic is someone who has been baptised into the faith of Catholicism. Catholic originating from the word Cataholis which is from the Greek language meaning all are welcome. That is exactly what the church do, they are meant to reach out to people of all languages and welcome them into there way of life. The love of money is the root of all evil, money will eventually turn into an obsession which follows on by evil because an obsessed person will do anything to get what they are obsessed about at any cost. The catholic teaching on wealth and poverty is the people who are wealthy are to use there wealth not only to help themselves but to help†¦show more content†¦And over 11 million children will die from poverty-related illness this year alone. Policies of governments and companies are keeping people poor. Policies that ensure global trade; benefits the rich, not the poor. The three richest men in the world are wealthier than the 48 poorest countries combined. Policies that give increasing power to multinational companies, for every  £1 of aid going into poor countries, multinationals take 66p of profits out. Many people exploit developing countries and take advantage where they can, but there are people who are supporting world development. The need for world development is important because it gives a chance to people who are in developing countries to be equal. Equality is something we lack in this world; everyday there is a constant competition to show who is greater. Equality gives everyone equal rights and makes no man greater than the other. Without wealth there would be no poverty so the best way of living would be equality. The need for world development is not just building equality but it is also a way Catholics may act out there faith, Catholics are meant to help the less fortunate so with a developing world Catholics would act out there faith as well as helping people. (iii) Analyse and explain the work of ONE Catholic agency working for world development. In this question I intend to discuss the Catholic charityShow MoreRelatedEssay about Christian Teachings on Wealth and Poverty702 Words   |  3 Pages wealth is not what you need to enter heaven. To enter heaven you must be caring and share your riches with the poor and needy. As a result of Jesus teachings, the early churches shared all they had to make sure no one was in need. Jesus taught us that the pursuing of wealth could lead you into temptations. He said that we will be judged not on the size of our bank balance, but on how we have helped those who are less fortunate. 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Determining The Profitability Of A Financial Institution - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 23 Words: 6807 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? CHAPTER 1 Rapid changes in financial service industries make it essential to determine the profitability of financial institution. Banks plays a key role in financial market of a country and for this ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s very important to evaluate that bank operate in efficient manner also what are the factors which affect the profitability of banks. A bank generates profit from the differential between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities. Historically, profitability from lending activities has been dependent on the needs and strengths of customers. In modern era, investors have demanded a more stable revenue stream and banks have therefore placed more emphasis on transaction fees, primarily loan fees but also included service charges on an array of deposit activities and other services (international banking, foreign exchange, insurance, investments, wire transfers, etc.). Lending activities provide the huge size of income to commercial banks. In the past 10 years banks have taken many measures to ensure that bank remain profitable while responding to increasingly changing market conditions. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Determining The Profitability Of A Financial Institution" essay for you Create order Financial sector of Pakistan structured on Scheduled and Unscheduled Banks. Scheduled Banks are regulated by the State Bank of Pakistanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Regulations, through different wings, and are subject to different SBP regulatory requirements such as capital and liquidity reserve requirements. The financial division analysts were projected à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“higher profitabilityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? in 2008. That projection made possible because State Bank of Pakistan has raised its discount rate in which the banks can invest to earn a good return. The rising lending rates contributed considerably to ensuring an increased profitability acknowledged by State bank of Pakistan. Factors that affect the profitability of Commercial Banks are both Endogenous and Exogenous. Endogenous factors are within the Control of Management such as quality of management and its policies, efficiency of management in generating revenues and controlling costs, bank capitalization and location. Exogenous factors are outside management control, especially macro economic indices such as Interest rates, Exchange rates, Inflation, and other regulatory and market constraints. The banking sector has been a source of stability for this country, because as you have seen in many countries, the banking sector has weakened and outright nationalization has taken place in some countries. However, the reforms that have taken place in Pakistan banking sector over the past 8 to 10 years have given stability and strength to this sector. There are some ratios, by which can measure the strength of a banking sector, and the most important amongst those ratios is Capital Adequacy; our countryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s average capital adequacy 8 percent some banks have less or some banks have more. Macro stability taken some time to trickle down was not something that happens over a month or two, because macro stability causes improvement in the confidence and that improvement caused investment decisions to become positive. As Pakistan banking sector presented stable condition. The country was not very export-dependent either, which is why the global decrease in trade has not had a big impact on Pakistan. Pakistan has the potential to achieve self-sufficiency over a period of time and create a major surplus for agriculture. Banks in Pakistan over the last eight to ten years have been more selective in the client base, apart from the consumer side, because the consumer loans are only 14 percent of the total loans its much lower than other countries. Country had faced some problems in the consumer loans, especially those banks that had become too aggressive in this sector, but the rest whether ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s corporate or agriculture have remained stable. Growth of Banking Sector: Profitability of the banking sector has been breaking its own record year after year during this ongoing decade. The commercial banking sector in Pakistan regulated by the state bank of Pakistan. SBP introduced several structural changes. Beside higher standards of corporate governance at management and board level, the banks are adhering to SBP prudential regulations, consistent with BIS standards. 36 Commercial Banks (26 local banks and 10 foreign banks) of which 22 were listed on stock exchange. Many merger/acquisition took place. Asset of banking sector registered a increase to reach at Rs 3.7 trillion (2005) with annual growth rate of 15.2% that outpaced economic growth (2005-06) 85 % of banking sector are in private hands. 1.3 Earning And Profitability Strong earnings and profitability profile of banks reflects the ability to support present and future operations. More specifically, this determined the capacity to absorb losses, finance its expansion programs, pay dividend to its shareholders and build up adequate level of capital. There were many different indicators used to serve the purpose, the best and most widely used indicator return on assets (ROA). Earning demanded most visible in case of foreign banks in 1998. The stress on earnings and profitability was expected although the steps taken by the SBP to improve liquidity. Not only liquid assets to total assets ratio turn down sharply, earning assets to total assets also dropped. T-Bill portfolio of banks declined considerably, as that were less compensated. Banks reduced return on deposits to sustain their spread. The financial institutes were not able to contain the decline in ROA due to declining stock and remuneration of their earning assets. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Research on the determinants of bank profitability has focused on the returns of bank assets and equity, and net interest rate margins. It has traditionally explored the impact on bank performance of bank-specific factors, such as risk, market power, and regulatory costs. Many researchers have focused on the impact of macroeconomic factors on bank performance and profitability. According to Flennery (2000) tested the hypothesis that market rate fluctuations adversely affect commercial bank profits. The finding have responded of revenue and cost of fund to market rate changes then determine whether regulators should take pains to stabilize market conditions. Market rate levels emerge as a prominent influence on intermediary costs and revenues, but the effects of market rate changes effectively cancel one another for most large banks. The research found significant sensitivity to interest rate and it was unstable over the time. By Brick (1994) estimated of market risk, interest rate risk, and foreign exchange risk continues to be unstable. The result of risk differed by bank type and period. As interest rate risk declines, foreign exchange increases; the result suggested that the market continues to reflect changes in the economic and regulatory situation of commercial banks in the pricing of bank stocks. The adverse impact of Interest Rate fluctuations on the profitability of Commercial Banks can be hedge with sound application of modern interest rate risk management theories and tools. Used accounting decompositions, as well as panel regressions, Al-Haschimi (2007) studied the determinants of bank net interest rate margins in 10 Sub Saharan African countries. Author found that credit risk and operating inefficiencies explain most of the variation in net interest margins across the region. Macroeconomic risk has only limited effects on net interest margins in the study. DemirgÃÆ' ¼ÃƒÆ' §-Kunt and Huizinga (1999) used bank level data for 80 countries for the periods 1988à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"95; analyze how bank characteristics and the overall banking environment affect both interest rate margins and bank returns. In considering both measures, this study provides a decomposition of the income effects of a number of determinants that affect depositor and borrower behavior, as opposed to that of shareholders. Results suggested that macroeconomic and regulatory conditions have a pronounced impact on margins and profitability. Lower market concentration ratios lead to lower margins or profits, while the effect of foreign ownership varies between industrialized and developing countries. Foreign banks have higher margins and profits compared to domestic banks in developing countries, while the opposite holds in developed countries. Hualan Cia and Weing (1992) studied on the effect of interest rate change on stock return and bank profitability, investigated the sensitivity of Canadian banks stock return and the profitability to change in interest rate. Used the data of Canadian banks on both the actual and unexpected change of different time series of interest rate indices, the short, intermediate and long term interest rate have significant negative correlation with bank stock return and profitability. The analysis showed through regression analysis by calculated the ratios of financial statements of banks. This measured the Canadian bank profitability against interest rate changes found that the net interest income and net income were not significantly related to change of interest rate. Flannery (1981) the study examined the relation between the interest rate sensitivity of common stock returns and the maturity composition of the firms nominal contracts. Used a sample of actively traded commercial banks and stock savings and loan associations, common stock returns are found to be correlated with interest rate changes. The co-movement of stock returns and interest rate changes positively related to the size of the maturity difference between the firms nominal assets and liabilities. Facts supported the hypothesis that the effect of nominal interest rate changes on common stock prices related to the maturity composition of a firms net nominal asset holding. For commercial bank and SL stocks, changes in interest rates were found to be significantly related to stock price movements. Also cross-sectional variation in the interest rate sensitivity measure was significantly related to the maturity mismatch of the bank assets and liabilities. Dependable with the nominal contracting hypothesis, the maturity composition of nominal contracts was found to be a significant factor affecting common stock returns. Coyne (1973) Commercial Bank Profitability by Function, The study was concerned with the cost, price and profit by function. It estimated the profit for real estate, installment, commercial and agricultural loans, and investments for banks stratified by size of deposit and the method, that was used to make that determination; the degree to which the average price (interest rate) by function known to the bank and, expressed by a sample period, whether it was equal to or greater than the cost of funds by function; and the degree to which the bank was able to determine its profit by function. The results of the surveyed were representative of the aggregate commercial banking community, the study concluded by the cost of funds estimates to average balance sheet for the Representative Bank of America (RBA).Raw data were obtained from the Federal Reserve Bank of Clevelands functional cost analysis of forty-one banks. Surveyed to the chief executive officer of 510 commercial banks provides insight into the manner in which commercial banks utilize. The author designed to provide a method of cost and profit calculation to the numerous small and medium-sized banks who indicated in response to the authors survey that the author knew little or nothing about the costs by function. The results of the investigation in general and the profitability of RBA in particular representative of the entire banking community, this study was provide help to individual banks as well as policy-making levels of state and national government where questions concerning matters such as usury laws and price (interest rate) controls appear to be taking a disproportionately large amount of time and effort to resolve. Goddard, Molyneux and Wilson (2004) determined the dynamic panel and cross-sectional regressions used to estimate growth and profit equations for a sample of commercial, savings, and co-operative banks from five major European Union countries during the mid-1990s. Methodologically unified the growth and profit strands in the previous empirical literature. Profit was an important prerequisite for future growth. High capital assets ratio tendency grow slowly in banking sector, and growth was connected to macroeconomic conditions. There were few systematic influences on bank growth. The resolution of profit appears higher for savings and co-operative banks than for commercial banks has attempted to unify the growth and profit strands in the literature by examining the performance of European banks during the 1990s. It reported univariate, bivariate, and multivariate versions of a two-equation model, which attempts to capture two-way causality between growth and profit while controlling for a range of other determinants of bank performance. The growth regressions suggested as banks became larger in relative terms, their growth performance tended to improve further. This pattern was strongest for commercial banks. Banks that sustained high capital-assets and liquidity ratios records low profitability. There was some evidence of a positive association between concentration and profitability, but little evidence of a link between bank-level x-inefficiency and profitability. While such patterns continue, concentration in European banking exhibited a natural tendency to increase. There was proof of positive perseverance of growth, although this tends to decline when additional control variables were included in the bivariate and multivariate growth models. The estimated coefficients on the covered profit term in the growth equations lend strong support to the notion that profit is an important sign to future growth. In the profit regressions, there was some variation in the estimated short-run between ownership types and countries. This reflected the fact that savings and co-operative banks are subject to various business and geographical restrictions that smother competition. The study favored th e SCP hypothesis of a positive association between concentration and profitability, but little apparent relationship between bank level inefficiency and profitability. In Latin America, Gelos (2006) studied the determinants of bank interest margins using bank and country level data. Author found that spreads are large because of relatively high interest rates because of macroeconomic risk, including from inflation, less efficient banks, and higher reserve requirements. In a study of United States banks for the period 1989à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"93, Angbazo (1997) found that net interest margins reflect primarily credit. In addition, there was evidence that net interest margins are positively related to core capital, non-interest bearing reserves, and management quality, but negatively related to liquidity risk. Ho and Saunders (1981) applied the model of to analyze the determinants of interest margins in six countries of the European Union and the US during the period 1988à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"95. Authors found that macroeconomic volatility and regulations have a significant impact on bank interest rate margins. The results also suggested an important trade-off between ensuring bank solvency, defined by high capital to asset ratios, and lowering the cost of financial services to consumers, as measured by low interest rate margins. Athanasoglou, Delis and Staikouras (2006) applied a dynamic panel data model to study the performance of Greek banks over the period 1985à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"2001, and find some profit persistence, a result that signal that the market structure not perfectly competitive. The results also showed that the profitability of Greek banks shaped by bank-specific factors and macroeconomic control variables, which were not under the direct control of bank management and industry formation, did not appear to significantly affect profitability. Athanasoglou (2008) studied the profitability behavior of the south eastern European banking industry over the period 1998à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"2002. The empirical result suggested that the enhancement of bank profitability in those countries requires new standards in risk management and operating efficiency, which, according to the evidence presented in the paper, crucially affect profits. A key result that effect market concentration was positive, while the picture regarding macroeconomic variables was mixed. A number of studies have emphasized the relation between macroeconomic variables and bank risk. Saunders and Allen (2004) surveyed on pro-cyclicality in operational, credit, and market risk exposures. Such cyclical effects mainly results from systematic risk originate from common macroeconomic influences or from interdependencies across firms as financial markets and institutions consolidate internationally. It ultimately exacerbates business cycle fluctuations due to adverse effects on bank lending capacity. Using equity returns data over the period 1973à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"2003, Allen and Bali (2004) examined the disastrous risk of financial institutions. Results suggested evidence of pro-cyclicality in both tragic and operational risk measurements, implying that macroeconomic, systematic, and environmental factors play a considerable role in determining the risk and returns of financial institutions. Pi and Timme (1993) investigated the relationship of concentration of decision management and control in one person on the cost efficiency level of the bank and return on assets. On the basis of the study found that the banks whose Chairman and CEO be same person had significantly less efficiency than those banks that possessed not similar governance structure and show that performance was affected by top management structure. Isik and Hassan (2003) estimated cost, allocate, technical, pure technical and scale efficiency of Turkish banking industry from 1988 to 1996. This study considered capital, loan able funds as bank short-term loans, long-term loans, risk adjustment off balance sheet items and other earning assets as output of bank. Thistle, McLeod and Conrad (1989) have found that (a) balance sheet composition depends on both the level and change in interest rates , (b) banks response to changes in interest rates in different, depending on whether rates are rising or falling. Authors determined the relation between banks portfolio of assets and liabilities and interest rate was stable. Several possible caused of instability. The econometric techniques employed allow for continuous change in the structure of the empirical model. The study found that the portfolio-interest rate relationship depends on the level of interest rates and exogenous assets, as well as their rate and direction of change Samy Ben Naceur (2005) investigated the impact of banks characteristics, financial structure and macroeconomic indicators on banks net interest margins and profitability in the Tunisian banking industry for the 1980-2000 periods. The study found individual bank characteristics explained a substantial part of the within-country variation in bank interest margins and profitability. High interest margin and profitability tend to be associated with banks that hold a relatively high amount of capital, and with large overheads. The study found that the inflation had a positive force for net interest margin; while economic growth has no incidence. Another factor was financial structure and its impact on banks interest margin and profitability; found that concentration be less beneficial to the Tunisian commercial banks than competition whereas for stock market development had a positive effect on bank profitability. This reflected the corresponding between bank and stock market growth. The study found that the disintermediation of the Tunisian financial system was favorable to the banking sector profitability. Some authors examined on banking of south European region, the determinants of bank interest margins adopt two alternative modeling frameworks used dealership approach and a micro-model of the banking-firm approach, study found bank as a dynamic dealer, setting interest rates on loans and deposits to balance the asymmetric arrival of loan demands and deposit supplies by Staikouras. The bank interest margins were shown to be fees charged by banks for the provision of liquidity. The alternative approach was the micro-model of the banking firm, the study found the banking firm in a static way, setting where demands and supplies of deposits and loans simultaneously clear both markets. Choi, Elyasiani and Kopecky (1992) estimated a multi-index model that considered market risk, interest sensitivity, and exchange rate risk of commercial bank stock returns. Dummy models were used to separate the period of pre- and post-October 1979 and to split the results attributable to money center banks from other banks. A significant exchange rate effect occurs for money center banks after October 1979, while interest sensitivity was stronger before October 1979. The exchange rate effect was attributing to raised hedge foreign loan exposure of money center banks. The bank profitability typically measured by the return on assets (ROA) and/or the return on equity, usually expressed as a function of internal and external determinants. Internal determinant factors that were mainly influenced by a bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s management decisions and policy objectives. Such profitability determinants are the level of liquidity, provisioning policy, capital adequacy, expenses management, and bank size. On the other hand, the external determinants, both industry and macroeconomic related, also known variables that reflect the economic and legal environments where the financial institution operates. By Bourke (1989) determined; Liquidity risk, arising from the possible inability of a bank to accommodate. Decreased in liabilities or to fund increases on the assetsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ side of the balance sheet, considered an important determinant of bank profitability. The loans market, especially credit to households and firms, risky and has a greater expected return than other bank assets, such as government securities. That expected a positive relationship between liquidity and profitability. Duca and McLaughlin (1990) studied that variations in bank profitability were largely attributable to variations in credit risk, since increased exposure to credit risk normally associated with decreased firm profitability. Miller and Noulas (1997) suggested that the more financial institutions are exposed to high risk loans, the higher the accumulation of unpaid loans and the lower the profitability. Even though leverage (capitalization) has been demonstrated to be important in explaining the performance of financial institutions, its impact on bank profitability was ambiguous. As lower capital ratios suggest a relatively risky position, one might expect a negative coefficient on this variable. Molyneux and Thornton (1992) observed a positive relationship, suggesting that high profits earned by firms be appropriated in the form of higher payroll expenditures paid to more productive human capital. It should be appealing to identify the dominant effect, in a developing banking environment like Malaysia. Authors used Bank size to capture potential economies or diseconomies of scale in the banking sector. The variable controls for cost differences and product and risk diversification according to the size of the financial institution. The first factor could lead to a positive relationship between size and bank profitability were significant economies of scale, while the second factor negative one was increased diversification leads to lower credit risk and lower returns. Berger, Hanweck, Humphery (1987) discussed that marginal cost savings can be achieved by increasing the size of the banking firm, especially as markets develop. Eichengreen and Gibson (2001) suggested that the effect of a growing bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s size on profitability may be positive up to a certain limit. Beyond the point, the effect of size was negative due to bureaucratic and other reasons. Bank profitability be sensitive to macroeconomic conditions despite the trend in the industry towards greater geographic diversification and larger use of financial engineering techniques to manage risk associated with business cycle forecasting. Generally, higher economic growth encourages bank to lend more and permits them to charge higher margins, as well as improving the quality of their assets. 2.1 The Determinants of Bank Performance: Studies on the determinants of bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interest margin and profitability have focused on single country sides and a panel of countries. 2.1a Single country studies As most of the studies on bank performance are conducted in the US and emerging markets. Neeley and Wheelock (1997) explored the profitability of a sample of insured commercial banks in the US for the 1980-1995 periods. Authors found that bank performance positively related to the annual percentage changes in the stateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s per capita income. The main Studies on the determinants of bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s performance in emerging countries were carried out in Colombia Barajas et al. (1999) document significant effects of financial liberalization on bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interest margins for the Colombian case. Although the overall spread has not declined after financial reform, the relevance of the different factors behind the bank spreads were affected by such measures. Another change linked with the liberalization process was the increase of the coefficient of loan quality after the liberalization. Afanasieff, Lhacer and Nakane (2002) make used of panel data techniques to uncover the main determinants of the bank interest spreads in Brazil. Ben Naceur and Goaied (2001) investigated the determinants of the Tunisian bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s performances during the period 1980-1995. The research indicated that the best performing banks were those who had struggled to improve labor and capital productivity, maintained a high level of deposit accounts relative to their assets and had been able to reinforce their equity. Guru, Staunton and Balashanmugam (2002) attempted to identify the determinants of successful deposit banks in order to provide practical guide for improved profitability performance of these institutions. The study was based on a sample of 17 Malaysian commercial banks over the 1986-1995. The profitability determinants were divided in two main categories, internal determinants (liquidity, capital adequacy and expenses management) and the external determinants (ownership, firm size and external economic conditions). The finding of that study revealed that efficient expenses management was one of the most significant in explaining high bank profitability. Among the macro indicators, high interest ratio was associated with low bank profitability and inflation was found to have a positive effect on bank performance. 2.1b Panel country studies The panel country studies were focused on European companies and developed and developing countries. Molyneux and Thornton (1992) were the first to explore thoroughly the determinants of bank profitability on a set of countries. Authors used sample of 18 European countries during the 1986-1989. The finding represented a significant positive association between the return on equity and the level of interest rates in each country, bank concentration, and government ownership. Abreu and Mendes (2002) investigated the determinants of bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interest margins and profitability for some European countries in the last decade. The authors reported that well capitalized banks face lower expected bankruptcy costs and advantages translate into better profitability. Although with a negative sign in all regressions, the unemployment rate was relevant in explaining bank profitability. Bashir (2000) examined the determinants of Islamic bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s performance across eight Middle Eastern countries for 1993-1998. A number of internal and external factors were used to predict profitability and efficiencies. Controlling for macroeconomic environment, financial market situation and taxation, the results showed that higher leverage and large loans to asset ratios, lead to higher profitability. The author reported in his study that foreign-owned banks are more profitable that the domestic. The result also found the evidence that taxation impacts negatively bank profitability. Final result of study was that macroeconomic setting and stock market development have a positive impact on profitability. DemerguÃÆ' §-Kunt and Huizingha (1999) examined the determinants of bank interest margins and profitability using a bank level data for 80 countries in the 1988- 1995 period. The set of variables included several factors accounting for bank characteristics, macroeconomic conditions, taxation, regulations, financial structure, and legal indicators. The study reported that a larger ratio of bank assets to GDP and a lower market concentration ratio lead to lower margins and profits. Foreign banks have higher margins and profits than domestic banks on developing countries, while the opposite prevail in developed countries. DemerguÃÆ' §-Kunt and Huizingha (2001) presented evidence on the impact of financial development and structure on bank profitability using bank level data for a large number of developed and developing countries over the 1990-1997 period. The study found that financial development has a very important impact on bank performance. It reported that higher bank development was related to lower bank performance. Stock market development on the other hand, leads to increased profits and margins for banks especially at lower levels of financial development, indicating complementarities between bank and stock market. CHAPTER 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESIS The interest rate assummed to be one of the most important factors that affect commercial banks profitability. The issue which deals in the study was the affect of market interest rate fluactuation has adversly related to commercial bank profitability. This thesis study bring opportunity to established a relationship between fluctuations in interest rates and the performance of commercial banks in Pakistan during the period of 2004- 2008. The main purpose of this study was to determine the implication of fluctuations in market interest rates on the profitability of commercial banks in Pakistan. This study provide à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Major causes of interest rate fluctuations à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"The extent to which commercial banks are set to manage interest rate related risks. Major causes of Interest Rate Fluctuation were unstable government Policies, Unstable Economic Environment, unavailability of long-term funds, Inflation. The factors that affect the commercial bank profitability were significant mismatch in the maturity profiles of Assets and Liabilities, Frequent Interest Rate Fluctuations, under capitalization of banks, Poor Collateral of credits. Pakistanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial sector included nationalized, foreign, and private banks; and Non-banking Financial Institutions (NBFIs) which include Development Finance Institutions (DFIs), Investment Banks, leasing companies, modarabas, and housing finance companies. Scheduled Banks know as also commercial bank regulated by the State Bank of Pakistan regulated through different wings, and subject to different SBP regulatory requirements such as capital and liquidity reserve requirements. Factors that affect the profitability of Commercial Banks are both Endogenous and Exogenous. Endogenous factors are within the Control of Management such as quality of management and its policies, efficiency of management in generating revenues and controlling costs, bank capitalization and location. Exogenous factors are outside management control, especially macro economic indices such as Interest rates, Exchange rates, Inflation, and other regulatory and market constraints. Interest rate comes under this category. 3.1 Discount rate: The discount rate is an interest rate a central bank of country charges depository institutes that borrow reserves from it. The rate of interest set by the State bank of Pakistan that member banks are charged when commercial bank borrow money through the SBP interest on an annual basis deducted in advance on a loan. 3.2 Bank Profitability: A bank generates a profit from the differential between the level of interest it pays for deposits and some different source of funds, and the scale of interest accuse in its lending activities. Strong earnings and profitability profile of banks reflects the ability to support present and future operations, that determines the capacity to absorb losses, finance its expansion program, pay dividend to its shareholders and build up adequate level of capital. Although different indicators are used to serve the purpose, the best and most widely used indicator are return on assets (ROA), Net Income, and Net interest income. CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHOD The method used in the study was regression analysis through à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Curve linear regressionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? apply for determined discount rate fluctuation has adversely impact on bank profitability. This section provides information about sources of data, sample size, and discussion of variables. 4.1 Data Collection This study used data analysis from secondary source. The data of financial statements are taken from annual reports of commercial banks for 5 years 2004-2008. 4.2 Data Sample The total sample of commercial bank in Pakistan is 27 listed in Karachi stock exchange out of which the sample size of research was 12 Commercial Banks in Pakistan. The market discount rate is independent variable and net income, net interest income and return on assets are dependent variables which collected from annual reports during the sample period. 4.3 Regression Analysis and Curve Linear Regression Change in Net income ΆNIt = ÃŽÂ ± + ÃŽÂ ² ΆIt Here, ΆNIt is the change of net income for a bank, computed by (Nit-Nit-1)/Nit-1 (It) is discount rate. It indicate how capable the management of banks has been converting the bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s asset into net earnings. Return on Assets ROA = Net Income /Total assets This ratio indicate efficient  management  at using its assets to generate earnings. Change in Net interest income ΆNII = ÃŽÂ ± + ÃŽÂ ² ΆIt Here, ΆNIIt is the change of net income for a bank, computed by (Niit-Niit-1)/Niit-1 (It) is discount rate. The net interest margin measures how large spread between interest revenue and interest cost it can achieve by controlling the bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s earning asset. 4.4 Variables: 4.3a Dependent Variable: Return On Asset: Ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s an indicator of profitability measurement of a bank or company.  ROA provide the idea  to how efficient  management is  at using its assets to generate earnings.  It Calculate by dividing a companys annual earnings by its total assets. ROA  explain what earnings were generated from invested capital (assets). The ROA figure provided an idea  how effectively the company can converted the money  into investment. The higher the ROA number, the better, because the bank is earning more money on less investment. Net Income: Net income represents the amount of money remaining after all costs, depreciation, interest, taxes, and other expenses have been deducted from a companys total sales. Net income also known as net profit, or net earnings. Ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s one of the most closely followed numbers a company can produce, and it plays a part in many other financial measures. Net income is not only a measure of company earned cash during a given period. Ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s also important to know that changes in accounting methods can influence net income figures, and in many cases these changes may have little to do with a companys actual operations. Changes in net income were used for much analysis. In general, when a bank or companys net income is negative or is fairly low, this could suggest a myriad of problems, ranging from inadequacies in customer or expense management to unfavorable accounting methods. Some institutes strive to minimize taxes and will therefore intentionally attempt to minimize their reported net income. Net interest Income: Net interest income is a financial measure for banks, calculated by the amount of money the bank receives from interest on assets (commercial loans, personal mortgages, etc) minus the amount of money the bank pays out for interest on liabilities (personal bank accounts, etc). The variable usually calculated for banks, this figure can also be calculated for other corporations, simply by subtracting the amount of interest paid on liabilities from the amount of interest earned from assets. 4.3b Independent Variable Interest rate In the study the discount rate was used as an interest rate which a central bank of country charges to depository institutes that borrow reserves from it. State Bank of Pakistan offered the discount rate to the commercial banks. CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS The study included three indicators to measures of performance; return of assets (ROA), change in net income (NI), and change in net interest income (NII). ROA have been used to measured performance studies. ROA measures the profit earned per dollar of assets and reflect how well bank management use the bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s real investments resources to generate profits while NI is focused on the profit earned on activities. Table 1 Variable Summary Dependent Variable Independent Variable ROA NI NII IR Number of Positive values 53 35 53 60 Number of Zeros 1 1 1 0 Number of Negative values 6 24 6 0 Number of (user missing) 0 0 0 0 Missing values (system missing) 0 0 0 0 The Curve linear regression procedure produces curve regression statistics and related plots for 11 different curve estimation regression models. Here variables appear to be related linearly, used a simple linear regression model. When variables were not linearly related, apply transforming data. When a transformation does not work, need a more complicated model. There be many models in the Curve Estimation procedure: linear, logarithmic, inverse, quadratic, cubic, power, compound, S-curve, logistic, growth, and exponential. The Curve Estimation routine in SPSS is a curve-fitting program to compare linear, logarithmic, inverse, quadratic, cubic, power, compound, S-curve, logistic, growth, and exponential models based on their relative goodness of fit for models where a dependent variable predicted by a single independent variable. This study has identified the profitability indicators that explain the variation in interest rate to evaluate the impact of interest rate on commercial bank profitability. This investigation has used the regression analysis through curve estimation. The model has been used in this study were Linear and Logarithmic regression to know the significance level of dependent variables in relation with independent variable. Linear model Y = b0 + (b1 * x) where b0 is the constant, b1 the regression coefficient for x, the independent variable. It required multivariate normality. The dependent variable related to the independent variable in a linear method. Here the interest rate was adversely related to three dependent variables. Logarithmic model Y = b0 + (b1 * ln(x)) where ln() is the natural log function. In the b0 is constant, b1 the regression coefficient for x, the independent variable. Through the log function the model tested the relation of interest rate and three dependent variables. 5.1 ANOVA Table 2 Sum of mean Square df Mean Square F Sig Linear ROA .001 1 .001 .325 .571 NI 7.762 1 7.762 .273 .603 NII .506 1 .506 3.063 .085 Logarithmic ROA .000 1 .000 .205 .653 NI 3.104 1 3.104 .109 .742 NII .666 1 .666 4.101 .047 In this table there are results of two equations Linear and Logarithmic in ANOVA analysis. The table contains two sets of equations, which represents the mean, frequency, and significance level of the variables. This table represented that Sig. (p value) = 0.047 As p 0.05 the predictors are significantly better than would be expected by chance. The regression line predicted by the independent variables explains a significant amount of the variance in the dependent variable. It would normally be reported in a similar trend to other ANOVAs: F (ROA, NI, NII) .325, .273, 3.063 were 0.05 F (ROA, NI, NII) .205, .109, 4.101 were 0.05 This shows that ROA, NI and NII are having insignificant result. The result proved that interest rate and Commercial bank profitability has adversely related to each other. ANOVA, Analysis of variance, a method of testing the null hypothesis that several group means are equal in the population, by comparing the sample variance estimated from the group means to that estimated within the groups. Table showed Sum of squares mean by the degrees of freedom it gives the Mean Square and F provided the significance value. It can see that the Regression explains significantly variance. It was based on the comparison of two estimate variances one representing the variance within groups, often referred to as error variance; and the other representing variance due to differences in-group means. If the two variances do not differ significantly, one can believe that all the group means come from the same sampling distribution of means and there was no reason to claim that the group means differ. However, the group means differ more than can be accounted for due to random error, there is reason to believe that were drawn from different sampling distributions of means. The larger F ratio, the greater is the difference between groups as compared to within group differences. An F- ratio equal to or less than one indicates that there is no significant difference between groups and the hypothesis is correct. The hypothesis was correct there was no significant level among independent variable with dependent variables. ANOVA procedure can be used correctly if the following condition: The dependent variables should be interval or ratio data type. The data used f ratios which interpreted the bank profitability. The population normally distributed and the variance is equal. 5.2: Coefficient Table 3 Unstandardize Coefficients Standardize coefficients t Sig B Std Error Beta Linear ROA .010 .018 .075 .570 .571 NI 1.050 2.007 .068 .523 .603 NII -.268 .153 -.224 -1.750 .085 Logarithmic ROA .003 .007 .059 .452 .653 NI .240 .728 .043 .330 .742 NII -.111 .055 -.257 -2.025 .047 The next part of the output, the Coefficients table, showed variables were individually significant predictors of dependent variable. Regression Coefficient measured how independent variable predicts the dependent variables. Here the interest rate predicts the ROA, NI, and NII. The table showed unstandardized Coefficient that provides the independent variables the regression equation. The Standardized Beta Coefficient column showed the contribution that an individual variable makes to the model. Here p 0.05 show significance of variable in the facts represent that dependent variables ROA, Net income and Net interest income had no significance level related to independent variable. Numerical value of the parameter estimated directly associated with an independent variable. The regression coefficient represents the amount of change in the dependent variable for a change in independent variable. In this study interest rate (discount rate) is independent variable and ROA, NI, NII are dependent variable. In regression coefficients are partial coefficient because each variable takes into account this represents the relationship of interest rate with ROA, Net Income and Net Interest Income. The facts represented that there was negative association between them. The coefficient is not limited in range, as it based on the degree of association and the scale unit of the independent variable. In linear regression, the size of the coefficient for each independent variable gives the size of the effect that variable is having on dependent variable, and the sign on the coefficient (positive or negative) gives the direction of the effect. In regression with a single independent variable, the coefficient tell how much the dependent variable is expected to increase (if the coefficient is positive) or decrease (if the coefficient is negative) when that independent variable increases by one. The result examined that as the interest rate raised it caused to decrease the level of return through the ratios. CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION The study determined that hypothesis was accepted interest rate fluctuation has adversely related with commercial bank profitability. The hypothesis tested by regression analysis of curve estimation through three dependent variables these are ROA, NI, NII and one Independent variable interest rate. The data used for analysis were from secondary source. Data taken from annual reports for the period 2004-2008 of commercial banks in Pakistan. As a result of the approved progress toward the relationship of interest rate and commercial bank profitability showed the association between them. The study examined that there was negative association between the interest rate and commercial bank profitability, as the causes of increasing interest rate was inflation. The study developed a framework for investigating through key ratios which showed the profitability of financial institutes that leads to more significant approach. Result proved the hypothesis. CHAPTER 7 IMPLICATION The analysis of the bank profitability against interest rate changes is important for investors, to measure Commercial bank profitability against interest rate risk. This study found the sensitivity of Commercial bank profitability to changes of interest rate. This investigation helped to increase the commitment of managers of commercial banks to hold sound interest rate management policies and minimize their exposure to interest rate risks. This study encouraged the policy makers and bank regulators to implement fiscal and monetary policy regime that will ensure interest rate stability.